The Shrewds’ Glossary

• Amplification Feedback: (Relating to stock prices): The phenomenon of investors observing recent stock price declines, producing fear, leading to more selling and thus further price declines. These new declines are again observed, and so on in a loop. The Amplification Feedback also occurs in the opposite direction—investors observe recent price rises, become either enthusiastic or fear missing out, causing on aggregate more buying, which is then observed, leading to more buying, and so on in a loop. In either direction, price momentum becomes a real phenomenon, however when it ends is unpredictable. (Relating to news): Negative (or positive) news can be distributed to a very wide audience, which causes journalists to re-publish similar stories, creating other journalists to re-report, and so on, creating another amplification feedback loop. This is sometimes called an Information Cascade and can work in conjuction with stock price momentum to create a enhanced-amplification-feedback effect.
• Basis Points (BPS): One-hundredth of one percent.
• CAGR (Compound Annual Growth Rate): The average growth rate of an investment. To calculate, the CAGR over 4 years with 35%, -10%, 20% and 15% annual returns, CAGR = (1.35 × 0.9 × 1.20 × 1.15)(1 / 4) = 13.8%. Comparing the CAGR of your equity over 7+ years to the CAGR of the S&P500 index, over the same period, is the metric by which shrewdness is measured.
• Capital Gain: Simply the "profit" you make when your stock price climbs—like buying 1,000 shares at $10 and watching them hit $11 for a $1,000 win. While the taxman usually wants a slice of that profit the moment you sell, a shrewd investor avoids that "haircut" by simply holding onto the stock, allowing the tax-deferred gains to stay invested and compound like crazy. By sitting tight, you're essentially using the government's future tax money to make yourself even more money, ending up with a much fatter wallet than the Wall Street "pros" who sell-and-buy far more excitedly, paying tax along the way.
• Circle of Competence: Investing only in areas of knowledge where your shrewdness is highest. It applies to all life ventures, but investing especially—knowing the boundary of this circle is more important than having a larger circle.
• Book Value: Also often called 'Equity', sometimes 'Liquidation Value', but best to think of it as the "Carcass Value." It is the company's total assets minus total liabilities, and what shareholders would supposedly get if the company sold all assets and paid all debts. But if you're leaning on Book Value for a tech or service company, you're looking at the tombstone instead of the engine. It can be useful, though, for valuying asset-heavy industries like banks, manufacturing, utilities, and real estate, where tangible assets (property, equipment, inventory) form a really large part of their value.
• Debt-to-Equity: The 'Oxygen Supply.' It tells us how many years of profit it would take to pay off the debt. If the company is underwater for too many years, the engine stalls. Shrewds look for companies that can breathe easy.
• Debt-to-Earnings: The number of years it takes to pay of all debt if earnings were to remain the same. This ratio of (Debt / Earnings) is a more immediate indicator of liquidity and default risk.
• Discount Rate: A way of thinking about investing that causes you to justify, or discard, any investment regardless of its true merit.
• Diversification: Spreading risk by not putting all your eggs in one basket. We don't need to be exceedingly diversified, but having at least four good ideas is far more robust than one.
• Diworsification: Over-diversifying until your shrewdness is diluted to zero.
• Dividend: The "rent" that you, as an owner of the company, collects. Shrewd companies pay dividends when either the shareholders favour it, or when a proportion of their earnings (called the 'Payout Ratio') cannot be re-invested back within the company (see Retained Earnings) at a sufficiently high rate of return, allowing the investor to re-invest the dividend elsewhere themselves.
• Data-Mining: Curve-fitting investment strategies to past prices until they fit history beautifully — while carrying no genuine predictive power. Try enough combinations and some rule will always appear to have ‘worked’ in the past by chance alone, which is why a data-mined screen so often falls apart once fresh, post-discovery data arrives.
• Dividend Yield: The dividend as a percentage of today's stock price (dividend per share / share price).
• Earnings Yield: The inverse of P/E; helps a shrewd investor compare stocks to bond yields. A typical stock (trading at a P/E of 15) will have a yield of 1/15 = 6.6%.
• Earnings Yield: The inverse of P/E; helps a shrewd investor compare stocks to bond yields. A typical stock (trading at a P/E of 15) will have a yield of 1/15 = 6.6%. Unlike bonds, EPS tends to keep up with inflation, so the future yield based on today's price is generally much higher over time.
Unlike bonds, EPS tends to keep up with inflation, so the future yield based on today's price is generally much higher over time.
• Fear of Missing Out (FOMO): Observing recent price rises in assets (stocks or housing) and—expecting the trend to continue—feeling a mix of anxiety and excitement to purchase immediately. This is driven by the desire to profit and the fear of being forced to pay significantly higher prices later.
• Economic Moat: An innate advantage that a shrewd business uses to keep competitors at bay. This allows a business to continue earning a higher Return on Equity than its competitors. Forms include: Intangible Assets (Brands, patents, and regulatory licenses), Switching Costs (financial or psychological costs that discourage customers from moving), Network Effects, Cost Advantages (underprice Coke and you're out of business), Efficient Scale (a weaker form of moat, but it helps).
• Active Management: Attempting to pick stock winners to outperform the market or to reduce volatility, which contrasts with just buying an ETF that tracks an index passively.
• Cognitive Biases: The mental glitches that sabotage rational investing. These psychological shortcuts—like following the herd or falling in love with a less than mediocre company—trick you into making emotional trades instead of shrewd ones. In a market that rewards discipline, these biases are the ultimate "hidden tax" on your returns.
• Capital Compounder: A shrewd business capable of investing back within itself, fairly repeateably, with a high rate of return, leading to outstanding long-term returns.
• ETF (Exchange-Traded Fund): A shrewd vehicle to have your capital match the returns of an index. It offers transparency and lower costs compared to managed funds. Examples include 'SPY' (S&P 500 market-cap weighted) or 'RSP' (S&P 500 equal-weighted).
• EV/EBITDA: A valuation shortcut taking into account Enterprise Value (Market Cap + Debt - Cash) and core operational earnings (EBITDA). It is a more shrewd metric than P/E for companies with large cash or debt positions, or lumpy one-off gains or loss on investments that don't relate to core operations
• Ex-Dividend Date: The date that determines who gets the dividend check. On this day the stock naturally drops by the per-share value of the dividend.
• Earnings: The profit (if positive) or loss (if negative) that a company is making right now, usually measured over the trailing 12 months (the last 4 reported quarters) or just one quarter. It is the company's sales (ie. revenue) minus expenses, including the expense of tax.
• Normalized Earnings: Also called trend earnings. The earnings a business would have reported in a typical year of trading, arrived at by stripping out the one-offs on both sides — a lawsuit settlement, an asset sold at a profit, a factory fire, a restructuring charge, a freak year of demand. A single reported year can flatter or libel a company badly; normalizing asks what the underlying business actually earns when nothing unusual is happening. It is the number to use for valuation, because you are buying the ordinary years rather than the exceptional one.
• Earnings Multiple: Another term for P/E, and the shrewdest way to think about the P/E; the multiple of the present earnings that the market 'believes' (rightly or wrongly) the company to be worth.
• EPS: The Earnings Per Share are the company's earnings divided by the number of shares outstanding.
• Expense Ratio: The fee that steals your shrewdness. Keep it low.
• Executed Transaction: When the full number of shares ordered were bought or sold.
• Forward P/E: Similar to P/E but using estimated EPS for the next year. It is a quick check to see if earnings are temporarily elevated or depressed.
• Free Cash Flow (FCF): The cold, hard cash left over for owners that can be used for dividends, buybacks, or reinvestment without harming the business.
• Geometric Return: The math that accounts for compounding; essential for shrewd modeling. If $10,000 grows at 9% over 20 years, you calculate 10,000 × 1.09 × 1.09 × 1.09 ... repeating 20 times, and denoted 10,000 x 1.0920.
• Intrinsic Value (IV): What a business is really worth, contrasting with what short-term traders might think it is worth at any given moment.
• Intrinsic Value (per share) / Price: Comparing the current price to the true value. Buying at intrinsic value results in ratio of 1.0, but buying at a discount (e.g., a ratio of 1.45) offers a "bonus" 45% return spread out over several months or years as the price eventually catches up to the intrinsic value.
• IV10 / Price: As espoused in Manlobbi's Descent, the "North Star" of shrewd investing. It compares the expected intrinsic value ten years from now (with dividends reinvested) to the price today. By looking further out, you are able to factor in the full weight of how growth effects intrinsic value. Factoring a full 10 years of operations, you are able to exploit greater market inefficiencies that others aren't appreciating. Firms that you can't forecast the IV10 for are simply skipped, leaving only a small number of candiates.
• Limit Order: The shrewd way to buy and sell shares of a company: only at your specified price, or a more favorable price, but never a less favorable price.
• Liquidity: How fast you can turn an asset into cash.
• Living Below Your Means (LBYM): A mindset of maintaining a significant gap between earnings and overhead, recognizing that many consumption habits are socially programmed without adding true value. By refusing to let lifestyle expenses—such as house size or vehicle price—float upward with income, you dramatically increase the annual contributions toward your compounding engine. LBYM has become a quiet but global movement against the status quo: a commitment to buying back your future autonomy rather than chasing present self-perceived status. Far from self-deprivation, it is the ultimate flex of financial power.
• Managed Fund: A pool of money with professional managers who charge fees for diversification and promotion, which reduces the investment return.
• Margin of Safety: The shrewd investor's insurance policy. If you think you will get an adequate return when buying a stock at $20 per share, you'll be more shrewd buying it at a 30% discount ($14 per share) in case your investment thesis missed one or two important things.
• Margin Call: When your stocks fall in value and are unable to support the Margin Debt issued earlier, the Broker forces you to either provide more cash, or sell stock (generally at the worst time).
• Market Cap: The total market value of the company (Share Price x Shares Outstanding), which is roughly what the entire company is worth (that is, if all shareholder would be both willing and agreeable to sell at today's quote).
• Margin Debt: This is the money you borrow from your broker—using your own hard-earned stocks as a hostage—just to chase a bit more action. A shrewd investor treats Margin Debt like a rigged game and avoids it entirely for four big reasons. First, it's a psychological trap: you'll be tempted to "leverage up" when the market is soaring (Buying High) and forced to liquidate when the market crashes (Selling Low), effectively automating your own failure. Second, it introduces the "Great Reset" risk; even a tiny 10% margin leaves you vulnerable to a total wipeout. In the 1930s, the market dropped 90%, and if you were leveraged by even 10%, you didn't just lose—you hit zero. And as we say in the huddle, Zero × [Your Net Equity] = Zero will always equal zero. Third, the math is surprisingly underwhelming. A $100,000 portfolio returning 10% over a decade gets you to $260,000 on your own. Adding 20% margin (at 7% interest) only nudges that to $286,000 - calculated as: (Normal Return) + (Return from the Margin Debt with a 7% Margin Rate) = (100,000 × 1.1010) + (20,000 × (1.10 - 0.07)10). That extra $26k is not life-changing — it's just a "marginal" tip for the decade of bankruptcy risk you carried. Finally, look at the asymmetry: if you're a great compounder, you'll be rich anyway without the debt; if you aren't, margin just amplifies your funeral. It's a tool that grows your downside exponentially while barely moving the needle on your win.
• Market Inefficiency: The capcity for the stock price and intrinsic value to sometimes differ by large or small amounts. Shrewd investors believe it to be the norm, whilst trained economists frequently come to believe the market to be efficient (price and value aligned).
• Market Maker: The House. They stand in the middle of every trade, pocketing the Spread like a toll booth operator. They provide the liquidity we need, but don't think for a second they're on your team. Shrewd investors trade so infrequently, often holding firms for 7+ years, that the spread isn't a problem, but for addicted Technical Traders, the spread makes their job essentially impossible.
• Market Order: Paying whatever the market asks; not shrewd for smaller firms where your trade size is significant relative to volume.
• Market Outperformance: Generating a return higher than the benchmark index, accounting for both capital gains and dividends (total return). Often referred to as Alpha within flashy Wall Street articles, it is readily trumpeted over year to year cycles - owing chiefly to ever-present random stock price gyrations - but extremely seldom found over very long periods such as 20+ years, which is the only place it really matters to shrewd investors.
• Market Timing: Trying to predict price changes over the short-term to buy or sell opportunistically. Shrewd investors don't do it, and believe it is impossible to do it. Instead, shrewd investors buy when the price is low relative to intrinsic value, with no opinion about the broad stock market movement over the short-term, considering it highly close to random.
• Mechanical Investing: A rules-based investment approach that uses predefined criteria or algorithms to automate buy/sell decisions, aiming to remove human emotion and biases like fear and greed. Shrewd'm has the most expert and active Mechanical Investing community in the world, who will passionately help you with any question, or you can read more using the Shrewd'm Mechanical Investing FAQ.
• Mr. Market: A conception that Benjamin Graham came up with, describing the market sentiment as a whole. Investors changing their mood all together, in unison, rather than each investor acting independently, owing to cognitive biases and amplification feedback effects such as the way news is distributed. Mr. Market is a hyper-emotional person, flipping betweena mania and depression. You must exploit Mr. Market, rather than fear him, in order to become shrewd. Like a drunk, he'll throw up quotes every month, sometimes far too high and sometimes far too low, and you don't have to take any of the drunk's quotes seriously—unless favourable to you as a shrewd investor.
• Mutual Fund: Often an expensive, non-shrewd way to invest compared to index ETFs.
• Network Effects: A positive feedback loop where a service becomes more valuable as more people use it (or there is more industry integration with the service), creating a "winner-takes-all" effect.
• Nominal Total Return: The annual increase in portfolio value (capital gains plus dividends) before tax and before inflation as a percentage of starting value. This contrast the Total Return which adds in dividends, and the Total Real Return which subtracts inflation to give your true wealth increase.
• Net-Net (Net Current Asset Value): Benjamin Graham's most severe bargain test—and the strangest sentence in investing: a company you can buy for less than the cash in its own pockets. Here is the arithmetic. Take only the current assets (cash, money owed by customers, inventory—the things convertible to cash within a year). Now subtract every single liability the company owes, short-term and long-term alike. What remains is the net current asset value. Then comes the ruthless part: the factories, the land, the machinery, the brand, the patents, the customer relationships built over forty years—value all of it at exactly zero. If the company's whole market capitalisation is still below that number, it is a net-net, and the entire living, trading business has effectively been thrown in free. You are being paid to take the factory. How can such a thing exist? Only through human behaviour. It happens when a business is so unfashionable, so recently embarrassing, or so thoroughly ignored that the last few sellers simply stop asking what it is worth—see Amplification Feedback. Graham's answer was not to agonise over each one: he bought them in baskets, knowing perfectly well that several would disappoint, because the arithmetic gave him a margin no individual story could take away. It is investing reduced to its skeleton—no forecasts, no charisma, no vision of the future, just a number that is either there or isn't. Two cautions keep this shrewd rather than reckless. First, the assets must be real: obsolete inventory and receivables that will never be collected are not cash, however confidently the balance sheet states them. Second, a business steadily losing money is quietly eating the very asset value you bought—the bargain melts while you wait, so check the debt and prefer businesses that at least break even. True net-nets have been largely screened away among big companies since the 1970s, and hunting them is now a specialist's craft. But they have never vanished. They surface among the smallest, dullest, least-watched companies, in markets outside the fashionable ones, and—reliably—in the depths of a panic, when fear becomes indiscriminate and price briefly loses all contact with arithmetic. Walter Schloss built five decades on precisely this insight; see the Walter Schloss guide, and the Falling Knives board where such things are still hunted today.
• Operating Margin: Efficiency in turning revenue into profit. Operating Income / Total Revenue.
• Opportunity Cost: The hidden cost of not being shrewd with your capital.
• P/E Ratio (Price-to-Earnings, or Earnings Multiple): The Price divided by Earnings Per Share (EPS). Shrewdness is knowing when this price is too high relative to the quality of the business.
• Passive Investing (Index Investing): The shrewd default for most investors, holding an ETF that tracks an index of stocks outperforms nearly all managed funds over the long-term, owing to the low costs of running an ETF. There are no stock-pickers, far fewer offices, and less marketing that all quietly shaves dwown the investor's returns.
• PEG Ratio: A shrewd way to adjust P/E for the growth rate. A PEG below 1.0 for a high-quality company can indicate a bargain.
• Post-Discovery Data: How a strategy performs on data that only arrived after the strategy was devised and made public. Any investing formula can be data-mined — curve-fitted to past prices so that it looks superb in back-tests while having no genuine predictive power (with enough attempts, some rule will always match history by chance alone). The honest test is what happens next: a strategy that continues to perform well on post-discovery data — the period since it became known — is showing a real edge rather than a coincidence fitted to the past. This is why continued post-discovery success is such a vital indicator of a genuine strategy.
• Price-to-Book (P/B): Comparing market value to the liquidation value of assets (or comparing the stock price to the per-share liquidation value); often less useful for high-quality service or tech businesses that have their future earnings support not by the balance sheet, but by their market position and Economic Moats such as Network Effects. Until the 1970s, companies would often trade a ludicrously cheap prices - such as 20% of this 'liquidation value' so investors could scoop them up, then sell close to book value but the days of those opportunities are impossibly rare. These days the great investment opportunies come from huge disconnects between the price today and the likely intrinsic value well into the future, owing to business qualities that impatient investors are missing.
• Portfolio: A list of all your liquid investments (cash position, margin debt, stocks, ETFs, etc) and their respective present market values.
• Real Total Return: The Nominal Total Return adjusted downwards by subtracting inflation (CPI).
• Return on Equity: Earnings divided by the Equity (Book Value); it describes how much profit is being produced relative to the size of the company. Asset-light firms often have a high Return on Equity, and if they can re-invest profits back in themselves at a high return then they make excellent compounding machines.
• Recency Bias: A cognitive shortcut where people give disproportionate weight to recent events. In other words, forgetting history; an enemy of shrewdness.
• Retained Earnings: Profits kept within the business to build more shrewdness and growth. Sometimes referred to as 'ploughing back' earnings, companies, in retaining their earnings, are doing just what you are doing—forfeiting a little earnings now for a lot more earnings later.
• ROIC (Return on Invested Capital): The gold standard of a shrewd capital compounder. While ROE measures the return on all the equity, ROIC measures the return a company earns on new capital deployed.
• Security: A broad term for any tradable financial asset representing ownership (like stocks/shares) or debt (like bonds), issued by companies or governments.
• Share Buybacks: A company using its cash to buy its own shares on the open market, reducing the number of outstanding shares. This will increase Earnings Per Share but also reduces the opportunity to use the cash for even higher returns at some point in the future, so it isn't always a win. Share buy-backs are economically not different to purchasing shares of another very similar company, so whether it is a good move or not depends on the price paid. It is only shrewd and value-adding when shares are purchased below intrinsic value.
• Scuttlebutt: Your secret edge. While Wall Street recycle news of the day and their geeks play with 'over-exact' formulas, you get the real insights by using products or platforms you know and grilling customers and employees. This shrewd "boots-on-the-ground" detective work reveals winning truths that spreadsheets simply can't see.
• S&P500 Index: Tracks the stock price return (without dividends) of 500 large US companies. Though it uses position sizing in proportion to their market cap, resulting in high exposure to just the top few giants, it has remained the quintessential stock return benchmark for investors not only in the US but around the world.
• Standard Deviation: A fancy "geek word" for how much a stock price wiggles. To a Shrewd investor, price wiggles are not risk—they are opportunity. High standard deviation just means Mr. Market is having a particularly moody day, offering us a chance to buy at a clearance price or sell during a mania peak when the long-term prospects are the lowest. Real risk is a permanent loss of capital; a squiggly line on a chart is just entertainment.
• Sunk Cost Fallacy: The reluctance to abandon a strategy because of heavy past investment. Also known as "throwing good money after bad." Shrewd investors would argue that the Sunk Cost Fallacy doesn't apply to declining prices (which can make the investment even more compelling) but rather, only bites a value investor when they are wrong about the business, and refuse to admit it because they've spent so much time and money on it.
• Ticker Symbol: The code under which a company, fund or other security trades on a stock exchange. To shrewd investors the ticker symbol represents real ownership of a business; to others it represents something that moves up and down triggering fear and greed impulses, akin to a casino game.
• Total Return: Total Return is the overall gain or loss on an investment over time, combining both capital appreciation (price increase) and income (dividends, interest, distributions) into a single percentage to show an investment's complete performance, not just its price movement. This contrast the Nominal Return which is the return without dividends.
• Spread: The difference between the buy and sell price on a stock currently on offer - this can be a difference of about 0.1% or even higher for thinly traded stocks. This is the "tax" you pay to the Market Makers for your trade.
• Technical Trading: Looking at past price squiggles to try to predict what the price will do next. As the trade is so ludicrously short-term (often minutes, hours, or just a few days) they would be playing a zero-sum game, however it becomes a negative sum game owing to the Market Maker taking a fee each trade. On aggregate, these traders lose a lot of money each year, and the profession is akin an elaborate form of playing The Pokies.
• Tracking Error: When a fund fails to match its index.
• Volatility: Price swings based on public mood or fashion changes, usually having no relation to the change in Intrinsic Value, that provide shrewd entry and exit points.